Evolution of visualisation and digital twin technologies in mining

Abstract In the era of big data and digital twins, visualisation has emerged as a critical tool for addressing the complexities of mining digitalisation. This paper provides a systematic review of the progression of mining visualisation, aiming to identify and address the multifaceted challenges encountered in its development. The review begins by outlining the principal stages of mining visualisation evolution, highlighting the technological advancements that have shaped its trajectory. It then critically analyses interactive visualisation applications in mining, encompassing 3D design-based methods, mining method demonstrations, and visualisation-driven platforms. These analyses provide valuable insights into the breadth of research conducted in this domain. Special emphasis is placed on the role of 3R technologies, namely Virtual Reality (VR), Augmented Reality (AR), and Mixed Reality (MR), in education, training, and mining applications. The utilisation of these technologies and their limitations within the mining context are assessed, alongside exploring the criteria essential for establishing mining digital twins. Furthermore, the developmental route of mining visualisation is outlined through an extensive review of current research, identifying seven distinct stages of evolution. The key challenges are synthesised into two primary areas: data-oriented visualisation and the reconstruction and maintenance of virtual environments. These include issues related to data cleaning, spatial–temporal management, system compatibility, and the complexities of dynamic mining activities. In conclusion, this paper highlights the ongoing advancements in mining visualisation, focusing on data-driven solutions, system integration, and the transformative potential of 3R technologies. It suggests that future innovations in mining visualisation and analytics will significantly influence the sector, creating new research opportunities and technological advancements that improve efficiency, safety, and sustainability.